Energy Resources Engineering

Fuel oil Energy

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Fuel oil is a fraction obtained from petroleum distillation, either as a distillate or a residue. Broadly speaking, fuel oil is any liquid petroleum product that is burned in a furnace or boiler for the generation of heat or used in an engine for the generation of power, except oils having a flash point of approximately 40 °C (104 °F) and oils burned in cotton or wool-wick burners. In this sense, diesel is a type of fuel oil. Fuel oil is made of long hydrocarbon chains, particularly alkanes, cycloalkanes and aromatics. The term fuel oil is also used in a stricter sense to refer only to the heaviest commercial fuel that can be obtained from crude oil, heavier than gasoline and naphtha.
Oil is another fossil fuel. It was also formed more than 300 million years ago. Some scientists say that tiny diatoms are the source of oil. Diatoms are sea creatures the size of a pin head. They do one thing just like plants; they can convert sunlight directly into stored energy.
Oil has been used for more than 5,000-6,000 years. The ancient Sumerians, Assyrians and Babylonians used crude oil and asphalt ("pitch") collected from large seeps at Tuttul (modern-day Hit) on the Euphrates River. A seep is a place on the ground where the oil leaks up from below ground. The ancient Egyptians, used liquid oil as a medicine for wounds, and oil has been used in lamps to provide light.
The Dead Sea, near the modern Country of Israel, used to be called Lake Asphaltites. The word asphalt was derived is from that term because of the lumps of gooey petroleum that were washed up on the lake shores from underwater seeps.
In North America, Native Americans used blankets to skim oil off the surface of streams and lakes. They used oil as medicine and to make canoes water-proof. During the Revolutionary War, Native Americans taught George Washington's troops how to treat frostbite with oil.

Fossil fuel energy accounted for 86.3% of all world energy in 1990. The Energy Information Adminis-tration (EIA) of the U.S. Department of Energy estimates that in the year 2010, fossil fuels will account for 85.9% of all world energy consumption — only a 0.4% percentage decrease in usage (see fig at the top)
According to EIA estimates, coal is expected to decline slightly from about a 27% to about a 25% share of consumption, and consumption of natural gas is expected to increase from 21 to 24% over the 20- year period. Over the same period, oil is forecasted to continue to be world major energy source with only slight declines from the present 39% of consumption. Recent efforts in the United States have been to foster growth in natural gas usage as an energy source, causing an estimated growth of 2.3% per year. Total energy usage is expected to grow from 345.6 to 476.0 quadrillion Btu or a 38% growth in energy usage over 20 years.

Obtaining accurate estimates of world petroleum and natural gas resources and reserves is difficult and uncertain. Terminology used by industry to classify resources and reserves has no broadly accepted standard classification. Such classifications have been a source of controversy in the international oil and gas community. Confusion persists in regard to classification. This section uses information provided by the Department of Energy classification system. The next chart shows the relationship of resources
to reserves. Recoverable resources include discovered and undiscovered resources. Discovered resources are those resources that can be economically recovered (Figure 7.3.3). Discovered resources include all production already out of the ground and reserves. Reserves are further broken down into proved reserves and other reserves. Again, there are many different groups that classify reserves in different ways, such as measured, indicated, internal, probable, and possible. Most groups break reserves into producing and nonproducing categories. Each of the definitions is quite voluminous and the techniques for qualifying reserves vary globally.

Proved reserves are generally defined as: “Those volumes of oil and gas that geological and engineering data demonstrate with reasonable certainty to be recoverable in future years from known reservoirs under existing economic and operating conditions.”
OPEC (the Organization of Petroleum-Exporting Countries) has been key in setting global fossil fuel prices over the last two decades. With very large reserves, OPEC can provide much of the world future needs for crude oil and petroleum products. About two-thirds of the world known petroleum reserves are located in the Middle East as shown in Table 7.3.7. Table 7.3.8 shows that the annual world crude oil production has steadily grown from 16.7 billion barrels in 1970 to 22 billion barrels in 1990.
Both crude oil demand and production are forecast to increase over the next 20 years. OPEC production is relatively level at 8.6 billion barrels in 1990 compared with 8.5 billion barrels in 1970. During the same time, non-OPEC production increased from 8.1 to 13.6 billion barrels. As the “swing producer”, OPEC’s production in 1980 increased by over 1 billion barrels when non-OPEC production could not meet total demand. They then decreased production by a similar amount in 1990 when production in the rest of the world increased by 1 billion to a non-OPEC total of 13.6 billion barrels. With a low price
environment, OPEC is expected to gain market share in global production over the next 20 years. Petroleum is refined into petroleum products that are used to meet individual product demands. The general classifications of products are

FINISHED PETROLEUM PRODUCTS
This category includes motor gasoline, aviation gasoline, jet fuel, kerosene, distillate, fuel oil, residual fuel oil, petrochemical feed stock, naphthas, lubricants, waxes, petroleum coke, asphalt and road oil, and still gas.

Motor gasoline includes reformulated gasoline for vehicles and oxygenated gasoline such as gasohol (a mixture of gasoline and alcohol).
Jet fuel is classified by use such as industrial or military and naphtha and

kerosene-type. Naphtha fuels are used in turbo jet and turbo prop aircraft engines and excludes ram-jet and petroleum rocket fuel. kerosene is used for space heaters, cook stoves, wick lamps, and water heaters.
Distillate fuel oil is broken into subcategories: No. 1 distillate, No. 2 distillate, and No. 4 fuel oil which is used for commercial burners.

Petrochemical feedstock is used in the manufacture of chemicals, synthetic rubber, and plastics.

Naphthas are petroleums with an approximate boiling range of 122 to 400°F.

Lubricants are substances used to reduce friction between bearing surfaces, used as process materials, and as carriers of other materials. They are produced from distillates or residues. Lubricants are paraffinic or naphthenic and separated by viscosity measurement.

Waxes are solid or semisolid material derived from petroleum distillates or residues. They are typically a slightly greasy, light colored or translucent, crystallizing mass.

Asphalt and road oil. Asphalt is a cementlike material containing bitumens. Road oil is any heavy petroleum oil used as a dust pallatine and road surface treatment.
Still Gas is any refinery by-product gas. It consists of light gases of methane, ethane, ethylene, butane, propane, and the other associated gases. Still gas typically used as a refinery fuel.

Fossil fuel

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Coal

Coal provides around 28% of our energy, and oil provides 40%. Mind you, this figure is bound to have changed since this page was written, so check the figures if you want to quote them.
Burning coal produces sulphur dioxide, an acidic gas that contributes to the formation of acid rain. This can be largely avoided using "flue gas desulphurisation" to clean up the gases before they are released into the atmosphere. This method uses limestone, and produces gypsum for the building industry as a by-product. However, it uses a lot of limestone.

Coal is a sedimentary rock formed by the accumulation and decay of organic substances derived from plant tissues and exudates that have been buried over periods of geological time along with varioustype and rank. Coal type classifies coal by the plant sources
mineral inclusions. Coal is classified by from which it was derived. Coal rank classifies coal by its degree of metamorphosis from the original plant sources and is therefore a measure of the age of the coal. The process of metamorphosis or aging coalification.
is termed

The study of coal by type is known as coal petrography. Coal type is determined from the examination of polished sections of a coal sample using a reflected-light microscope. The degree of reflectance and color of a sample are identified with specific residues of the original plant tissues. These various residues macerals. Macerals are collected into three main groups: vitrinite, inertinite, and are referred to as exinite (sometimes referred to as liptinite).

Coal rank is the most important property of coal, since it is rank which initiates the classification of coal for use. Rank is a measure of the age or degree of coalification of coal. Coalification describes the process which the buried organic matter goes through to become coal. When first buried, the organic matter has a certain elemental composition and organic structure. However, as the material becomes subjected to heat and pressure, the composition and structure slowly change. Certain structures are broken down, and others are formed. Some elements are lost through volatilization while others are
concentrated through a number of processes, including being exposed to underground flows which carry away some elements and deposit others. Coalification changes the values of various properties of coal.

Thus, coal can be classified by rank through the measurement of one or more of these changing properties. In the United States and Canada, the rank classification scheme defined by the American Society of gross calorific Testing and Materials (ASTM) has become the standard. In this scheme, the properties of and fixed carbon or volatile matter content are used to classify a coal by rank. Gross calorific value value is a measure of the energy content of the coal and is usually expressed m units of energy per unit mass. Calorific value increases as the coal proceeds through coalification. Fixed carbon content is a measure of the mass remaining after heating a dry coal sample under conditions specified by the ASTM

Fixed carbon content increases with coalification. The conditions specified for the measurement of fixed carbon content result in being able alternatively to use the volatile matter content of the coal measured under dry, ash-free conditions as a rank parameter. The rank of a coal proceeds from lignite, the “youngest” coal, through subbituminous, bituminous, and semibituminous, to anthracite, the “oldest” coal. According to the ASTM scheme, coals are ranked by calorific value up to the high volatile A bituminous rank, which includes coals with calorific values (measured on a moist, mineral matter- free basis) greater than 14,000 Btu/lb (32,564 kJ/kg). At this point, fixed carbon content (measured on a dry, mineral matter-free basis) takes over as the rank parameter. Thus, a high volatile A bituminous coal is defined as having a calorific value greater than 14,000 Btu/lb, but a fixed carbon content less than 69 wt%. The requirement for having two different properties with which to define rank arises because calorific value increases significantly through the lower-rank coals, but very little (in a relative sense) in the higher-ranks, whereas fixed carbon content has a wider range in higher-rank coals, but
little (relative) change in the lower-ranks. The most widely used classification scheme outside of North America is that developed under the jurisdiction of the International Standards Organization, Technical Committee 27, Solid Mineral Fuels

Coal analysis methods
The composition of a coal is typically reported in terms of its proximate analysis and its ultimate The proximate analysis of a coal is made up of four constituents: volatile matter content, fixed analysis. carbon content, moisture content, and ash content, all of which are reported on a weight percent basis. The measurement of these four properties of a coal must be carried out according to strict specifications codified by the ASTM.
Volatile matter in coal includes carbon dioxide, inorganic sulfur- and nitrogen-containing species, and organic compounds. The percentage of various species present depends on rank. Volatile matter content can typically be reported on a number of bases, such as moist; dry, mineral matter-free (dmmf); moist, mineral matter-free; moist, ash-free; and dry, ash-free (daf); depending on the condition of the coal on which measurements were made. Mineral matter and ash are two distinct entities. Coal does not contain ash, even though the ash content of a coal is reported as part of its proximate analysis. Instead, coal contains mineral matter, which can be present both as distinct mineral entities or inclusions and intimately bound with the organic matrix after combusting a
of the coal. Ash, on the other hand, refers to the solid inorganic material remaining
coal sample. Proximate ash content is the ash remaining after the coal has been exposed to air under specific conditions (ASTM Standard Test Method D 3174). It is reported as the mass percent remaining upon combustion of the original sample on either a dry or moist basis.Moisture content refers to the mass of water which is released from the solid coal sample when it is heated under specific conditions of temperature and residence time as codified in ASTM Standard Test Method D 3173.

Types of Derived Energy

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This blog article describes the primary as well as derived energy sources. The objective is to provide information on the extent, availability, measurements and estimation, properties, and limitations of each type of resource. These considerations are important for an engineer to know and understand before attempting selection and design of an energy conversion system. The chapter also includes environmental impacts of energy resources since the environmental aspects are expected to play a major role in the selection of energy resources. In addition, there is a brief discussion of the costs associated with each resource to help in the economic analysis and comparison the resources.

The Blog chapter starts with an introduction and background of a historical perspective on energy use and projections of the future energy needs in the U.S., the industrialized countries, and the world. The primaryenergy sources described in this chapter include fossil fuels such as coal, natural gas, petroleum (includingtheir synthetic derivatives), biomass (including refuse-derived biomass fuels), nuclear, solar radiation,wind, geothermal, and ocean. In addition there is a brief section on derived energy sources includingelectricity. So, the terminology and units used for each energy resource and their equivalence are provided.

Energy from renewable and nonrenewable fuels can be converted to the derived energy forms — thermal, mechanical, and electrical, which are useful for various end uses such as transportation, buildings (heating, cooling, lighting), agricultural, and industrial end uses. The derived energy forms are easily transformed from one type to the other. Figure below 1 shows the projected U.S. energy use by end-use

sector

Transportation is mainly dependent on oil resources. Efforts to reduce urban air pollution are expected to increase the use of electricity as the preferred energy form for urban transportation. For most of the other end uses electricity will continue to be the preferred energy form. Therefore, it is important to understand the activity in the area of electricity production. Figure 2 below shows the world installed electricity generation capacity by primary energy sources. The United States produces 700 GW (gigawatts ), representing more than 25% of the world electricity capacity. Other major electricity producers

or 10 are Russia, Europe, Japan, and China. It is expected that China, India, and Southeast Asian countries will add major electricity capacity in the next 20 years.

Integrated resource planning (IRP), or least-cost planning, is the process used to optimize the resource options and minimize the total consumer costs including environmental and health costs that may be attributed to the resource. IRP examines all of the options, including the demand-side options, to minimize the total costs.

There is considerable emphasis on IRP in a number of states in United States demand-side management (DSM) for the current capacity (Kreith for future electric capacity and on and Burmeister, 1993). The IRP process generally includes some combination of the following steps (Kreith and Burmeister, 1993): development of a load forecast; inventory of existing resources; identi- fication of additional electrical capacity needs; demand-side management programs; screening and identification of options that are feasible; uncertainty analysis in view of uncertainty of future load, fuel

prices, capital costs, etc; and selection of a resource or a mix of resources.

Demand Side Management DSM refers to a mix of electrical utility-sponsored custom incentives and disincentives that influence the amount and timing of customer demand in order to better utilize the available resources. Kreith and Burmeister (1993) and SERI (1991) list a number of DSM strategies.

Introduction of energy

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The etymology of the term is from Greek ενέργεια, εν- means "in" and έργον means "work"; the -ια suffix forms an abstract noun. The compound εν-εργεια in Epic Greek meant "divine action" or "magical operation"; it was later used by Aristotle in a meaning of "activity, operation" or "vigour", and by Diodorus Siculus for "force of an engine

Energy is a fundamental concept in physics that is often defined as the capacity to do mechanical work — a definition that is contested by many physicists (see below). The concept of energy has applications throughout the natural sciences.

Energy is subject to a strict local conservation law. That means energy cannot be created or destroyed. The only way the energy content of a given region can change is by the flow of energy to or from adjacent regions. There is also a global law of energy conservation, which says that the total energy of the universe cannot change. The global law is a corollary of the local law (and not vice versa). Conservation of energy is related to a symmetry of the laws of physics, namely invariance with respect to a shift in time, via Noether's theorem.

In classical physics (pre-20th-century), energy was considered a scalar quantity, having no direction in space. In special relativity energy is also a scalar and is one component of more general quantity - energy-momentum 4-vector (so energy is associated with the timelike direction).[3] To say the same thing another way, energy is invariant with respect to spacelike rotations, but not invariant with respect to boosts.

The total energy of a system can be subdivided and classified in many ways. For example, it is sometimes convenient to distinguish kinetic energy from potential energy. It may also be convenient to distinguish gravitational energy, electrical energy, thermal energy, et cetera. These classifications overlap; for instance thermal energy is usually partly kinetic and partly potential energy.

It comes in different forms -- heat (thermal), light (radiant), mechanical, electrical, chemical, and nuclear energy. Energy is in everything. We use energy to do everything we do, from making a jump shot to baking our favorite cookies to sending astronauts into space -- energy is there, making sure we have the power to do it all. There are two types of energy -- stored (potential) energy and working (kinetic) energy. For example, the food you eat contains chemical energy, and your body stores this energy until you release it when you work or play. Learn more about these different forms of energy.

All forms of energy are stored in different ways, in the energy sources that we use every day. These sources are divided into two groups renewable (an energy source that can be replenished in a short period of time) and nonrenewable (an energy source that we are using up and cannot recreate in a short period of time). Renewable and nonrenewable energy sources can be used to produce secondary energy sources including electricity and hydrogen.

Renewable energy sources include solar energy, which comes from the sun and can be turned into electricity and heat. Wind, geothermal energy from inside the earth, biomass from plants, and hydropower and ocean energy from water are also renewable energy sources.

Renewable energy is energy derived from resources that are regenerative or for all practical purposes cannot be depleted.[Renewable energy sources contribute approximately 29.3% of human energy use worldwide. The prime source of renewable energy is solar radiation, i.e. sunlight. The Earth-Atmosphere system supports approximately 5.4 x 1024 joules per year in the solar radiation cycle (Sorensen, 2004).

Mankind's traditional uses of wind, water, and solar power are widespread in developed and developing countries; but the mass production of electricity using renewable energy sources has become more commonplace only recently, reflecting the major threats of climate change due to pollution, exhaustion of fossil fuels, and the environmental, social and political risks of fossil fuels and nuclear power. Many countries and organizations promote renewable energies through taxes and subsidies.

However, we get most of our energy from nonrenewable energy sources, which include the fossil fuels oil, natural gas, and coal. They're called fossil fuels because they were formed over millions and millions of years by the action of heat from the Earth's core and pressure from rock and soil on the remains (or "fossils") of dead plants and animals. Another nonrenewable energy source is the element uranium, whose atoms we split (through a process called nuclear fission) to create heat and ultimately electricity.

We use all these energy sources to generate the electricity we need for our homes, businesses, schools, and factories. Electricity "energizes" our computers, lights, refrigerators, washing machines, and air conditioners, to name only a few uses.

We use energy to run our cars and trucks. Both the gasoline used in our cars, and the diesel fuel used in our trucks are made from oil. The propane that fuels our outdoor grills and makes hot air balloons soar is made from oil and natural gas.